{"id":44,"date":"2023-12-06T17:47:55","date_gmt":"2023-12-06T17:47:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/?page_id=44"},"modified":"2024-01-07T10:22:39","modified_gmt":"2024-01-07T10:22:39","slug":"anish-shaw-jan-5-2023","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/anish-shaw-jan-5-2023\/","title":{"rendered":"Anish Shaw; Jan 5, 2023"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Anish Shah
Keshav Memorial Institute of Commerce and Sciences, Hyderabad \u2013 500029<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

ABSTRACT<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The Indian Philosophy is regarded as the most mature philosophy in the world. Its approach towards the quest regarding creation, the Almighty and Salvation, makes it unique among others. All the six dar\u015banas namely, Ny\u0101ya, Vai\u015be\u1e63ika, S\u0101\u1e43khya, Yoga, M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 and Ved\u0101nta, provide a different and exclusive angle to the answers of the philosophical quest. The deep insights into these concepts by various sages and scholars, gave birth to various sub-schools, showcasing the divine intellectual prowess of San\u0101tana Dharma. The present paper communicates in a bird eye of all the 6 dar\u015banas for an aspirant to choose the most suitable one for his salvation. Through this paper, we can come to a conclusion that the last dar\u015bana, that is Ved\u0101nta provides an amicable solution to current day aspirants. It gives a practical and more easy path of salvation through devotion. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Received<\/strong>: Nov 1, 2022 | Accepted<\/strong>: Dec 02, 2022 | Published<\/strong>: Jan 5, 2023<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Keywords<\/strong>: Indian Philosophy, Orthodox Schools, Ny\u0101ya, Vai\u015be\u1e63ika, S\u0101\u1e43khya, Yoga, M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101, Ved\u0101nta, Brahma, J\u012bva, Jagat, Mok\u1e63a.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Citation<\/strong>: Anish Shah (2023) Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy. KMICS Journal of Language Studies 1(1): 1-17. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.62011\/kmicsjls.2023.1.1.1<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Competing interests<\/strong>: The author has declared that no competing interests exist.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Copyright<\/strong>: \u00a9 2023 Anish Shah. This is an open-access article. The use, distribution, and reproduction of this article in any medium is unrestricted, provided the original author and source are cited.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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INTRODUCTION<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

From times immemorial, the human civilization has been wondering about the various mysteries of the existence. Looking around, huge waves of questions drench us as- \u201cWho are we? From where did we come? What happens to us after the death? From did this universe come? And just as the waves, these will be unending\u201d. This quoted text is written in Sanskrit as    \u0915\u094b\u093d\u0939\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0926\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0948 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u093d\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0947 | \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093e\u0928\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0903 \u0938\u094b\u093d\u092f\u092e\u0940\u0926\u0943\u0936\u0903||    <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The above Sanskrit text is read as<\/p>\n\n\n\n

 ko’ha\u1e43 kathamida\u1e43 j\u0101ta\u1e43 ko vai kart\u0101’sya vidyate \u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

up\u0101d\u0101na\u1e43 kimast\u012bha vic\u0101ra\u1e25 so’yam\u012bd\u1e5b\u015ba\u1e25 \u09651<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The same above convention is followed throughout the paper.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The desperate effort to find answers for all these questions gave birth to Philosophy. The simple meaning of philosophy as per Oxford is- The study of the fundamental nature of the knowledge, reality and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline. Also \u2013 Philosophy is a theory or attitude that acts as a guiding principle for behaviour.                                       <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Though both are considered to be philosophy, there is great difference between Western Philosophy and Bh\u0101rat\u012bya Dar\u015bana. Western Philosophy is an effort to quench the curiosity of knowing new and mysterious things that make you wonder. According to Plato-\u2018Wonder is the feeling of the philosopher and philosophy begins in wonder\u2019. Whereas, the Bh\u0101rat\u012bya Dar\u015bana is based on finding a path for elimination of three fold miseries. Unlike the Western Philosophy, every dar\u015bana has its own path and destination. Thus, it is more practical and beneficial. Thus, there are two broad classifications of Dar\u015banas based on their acceptance of Vedas as authority. The \u0100stika Dar\u015bana (Theistic or Orthodox School of Philosophy) firmly believes in Vedas, where as N\u0101stika Dar\u015bana (Atheistic or Heterodox School of Philosophy) doesn\u2019t consider Vedas as an authority. The six \u0100stika Dar\u015banas are Ny\u0101ya, Vai\u015be\u1e63ika, S\u0101\u1e43khya, Yoga, M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 and Ved\u0101nta. There are many N\u0101stika Dar\u015banas as well. The six \u0100stika Dar\u015banas are –<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ny\u0101ya:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The definition of Ny\u0101ya as per V\u0101tsy\u0101yana is ascertaining the correct knowledge of an object through various means. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0948\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u092e\u094d \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0903, pram\u0101\u1e47airarthapar\u012bk\u1e63a\u1e47am ny\u0101ya\u1e25.2<\/sup> It is almost impossible to interpret contradicting \u015aruti V\u0101kyas without the help of Tarka. According to Ma\u1e47u, the essence of Vedas, without any contradiction, can be understood by Tarka only.                   <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0906\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0902 \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e\u094b\u092a\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0902 \u091a \u0935\u0947\u0926\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u093d\u0935\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0964 \u092f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0923\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0947 \u0938 \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0902 \u0935\u0947\u0926 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u0930\u0903 ||   <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0101r\u1e63a\u1e43 dharmopade\u015ba\u1e43 ca veda\u015b\u0101str\u0101’virodhin\u0101 \u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

yastarke\u1e47\u0101nusa\u1e43dhatte sa dharma\u1e43 veda netara\u1e25 ||3<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

 Ny\u0101ya is propounded by Gautama in his Ny\u0101ya S\u016btra, wherein he discusses in detail the sixteen categories in Ny\u0101ya.                                                                                                                       <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Sixteen Categories4<\/sup>: – <\/strong>According to Gautama the true knowledge of the sixteen categories by Prav\u1e5btti, Udde\u015bya & Par\u012bk\u1e63\u0101 can lead to Ni\u015breyas (Supreme felicity).5<\/sup> They are (1) Pram\u0101\u1e47a (Means of right knowledge) (2) Prameya (object of right knowledge) (3) Sa\u1e43\u015baya (doubt) (4) Prayojana (purpose) (5) D\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101nta ( example) (6) Siddh\u0101nta (established tenets) (7) Avyaya (members of syllogism ) (8) Tarka (Confutation) (9) Nir\u1e47aya (ascertainment) (10) V\u0101da (discussion) (11) Jalpa (wrangling) (12) Vita\u1e47\u1e0da (cavil) (13) Hetv\u0101bh\u0101sa (fallacy) (14) Chala (quibble) (15) J\u0101ti (futility ) and (16) Nigrahsth\u0101na (occasion for rebuke).                              <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pram\u0101\u1e47a: <\/strong>– The definition of Pram\u0101\u1e47a is \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0923\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092e\u094d, pram\u0101 kara\u1e47a\u1e43 pram\u0101\u1e47am.6<\/sup> Pram\u0101 means true knowledge. Thus, the means of acquiring the true knowledge (Pram\u0101) is called Pram\u0101\u1e47a. The Ny\u0101ya dar\u015bana is so called as it is a detailed study of Pram\u0101\u1e47as. Knowledge is of two types viz; Sm\u1e5bti (Memory) and A\u1e47ubhava (Experience). There are four types of Pram\u0101\u1e47as accepted by Ny\u0101ya.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pratyak\u1e63a- Pratyak\u1e63a Pram\u0101\u1e47a is the one through which one gains Pratyak\u1e63a j\u00f1\u0101na or Pram\u0101. According to Gautama, Pratyak\u1e63a (perception) is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense organ with its object and which is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic, \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u092e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u094d,<\/p>\n\n\n\n

indriy\u0101rthasannikar\u1e63otpanna\u1e43 j\u00f1\u0101namavyapade\u015byamavyabhic\u0101ri vyavas\u0101y\u0101tmaka\u1e43 pratyak\u1e63am.7<\/sup> The means of perceiving such is knowledge is Pratyak\u1e63a Pram\u0101\u1e47a.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A\u1e47um\u0101na – Par\u0101mar\u015ba (Subsumptive reflection) of the li\u1e43ga (reason) is called A\u1e47um\u0101na (inference).The derivative meaning of A\u1e47um\u0101na is that through which something is inferred. \u0932\u093f\u0919\u094d\u0917\u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u093d\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u092e\u094d \u0964 \u092f\u0947\u0928 \u0939\u094d\u092f\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0940\u092f\u0924\u0947 \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u092e\u094d \u0965                                                <\/p>\n\n\n\n

li\u1e45gapar\u0101mar\u015bo’num\u0101nam \u0964 yena hyanum\u012byate tadanum\u0101nam \u09658<\/sup>                                                  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

For e.g.: – By seeing smoke on mountain, one can infer that the mountain is on fire. In this example, we have to infer whether the mountain is on fire.                                             <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Upam\u0101na- Knowing an object based on the experience of seeing a similar object in past is called Upam\u0101na. For e.g.:- when someone is told that \u201cThe animal N\u012bla G\u0101ya (Blue Bull) is similar to cow.\u201d That person, on seeing N\u012bla G\u0101ya in forest, identifies it because he has seen cow earlier.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u015aabda- \u015aabda is the last pram\u0101\u1e47a. In Ny\u0101ya S\u016btra (1\/1\/6) it is defined as- \u0906\u092a\u094d\u0924\u094b\u092a\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0903 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u0903, \u0101ptopade\u015ba\u1e25 \u015babda\u1e25. It means believing the words of Vedas and the people who have true knowledge and are good advisers.                                                                                         <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Prameya: – There are 12 types of Prameya according to Ny\u0101ya s\u016btra,<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930\u0947\u0928\u094d\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092e\u0928\u0903\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u092b\u0932\u0926\u0941\u0903\u0916\u093e\u092a\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0947\u092f\u092e\u094d,<\/p>\n\n\n\n

 \u0101tma\u015bar\u012brendriy\u0101rthabuddhimana\u1e25prav\u1e5bttido\u1e63apretyabh\u0101vaphaladu\u1e25kh\u0101pavarg\u0101stu prameyam.9<\/sup> They are – Soul (\u0100tm\u0101), Body (\u015aar\u012bra), Organs (Indriya), Object (Artha), Intellect (Buddhi), Mind (Mana),Action (Prav\u1e5btti), Blemish (Do\u1e63a), Re- birth (Prety\u0101bh\u0101va), Result (Phala), Misery (Dukha), Salvation (Apavarga).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u012a\u015bvara: – Unlike S\u0101\u1e43khya, the Ny\u0101ya School strongly believes in the entity of Almighty. According to Ny\u0101ya, he is the creator, protector & destroyer of the universe. He is the Supreme Power. He is only the instrumental cause of the universe, the material cause being atoms.                                                                                                                               Mukti: – Mukti (Salvation) according to Ny\u0101ya is the complete freedom from misery, \u0924\u0926\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0928\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u092e\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u093d\u092a\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0903, tadatyantavimok\u1e63o’pavarga\u1e25.10<\/sup> It is possible only with the end of re-birth cycle. Because, even though miseries end in this birth completely, it cannot be called complete, as it is a misery to take another birth. Thus, Mok\u1e63a or Mukti is total freedom from the cycle of birth and re-birth.                                                                                                                         <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The way to attain Mukti (Mukti m\u0101rga): – According to Gautama the only way to attain Mukti is through true knowledge (Tattva J\u00f1\u0101na).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0926\u0941\u0903\u0916\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0926\u094b\u0937\u092e\u093f\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e\u092e\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u092a\u093e\u092f\u0947 \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0928\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u092a\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0926\u092a\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0903,<\/p>\n\n\n\n

 du\u1e25khajanmaprav\u1e5bttido\u1e63amithy\u0101j\u00f1\u0101n\u0101n\u0101muttarottar\u0101p\u0101ye tadanantar\u0101p\u0101y\u0101dapavarga\u1e25.11<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

False perception (Mithy\u0101 J\u00f1\u0101na) leads to attachment and hatred because of which a person gets inclined towards good and bad deeds, due to which he gets birth. Thus, destruction of the false perception by true knowledge leads to Mukti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The detailed analysis of Pram\u0101\u1e47a in the Ny\u0101ya is of great help to other dar\u015banas as well, though with some modifications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Vai\u015be\u1e63ika:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Vai\u015be\u1e63ika dar\u015bana has been propounded by sage Ka\u1e47\u0101da. Ka\u1e47\u0101da wrote the book Vai\u015be\u1e63ika S\u016btra with 370 s\u016btras. The name of the system Vai\u015be\u1e63ika is derived from the term vi\u015be\u1e63a, meaning particularity, as it recognises this as a category. None of the other schools recognise vi\u015be\u1e63a as a category.12<\/sup> Ny\u0101ya-Vai\u015be\u1e63ika is considered as a pair because they share the same concepts on pad\u0101rtha and means of salvation. According to Vai\u015be\u1e63ika, the salvation can be attained through the true knowledge or tattva j\u00f1\u0101na of the pad\u0101rthas. Thus, metaphysics of Vai\u015be\u1e63ika dar\u015bana is classification and defination of the pad\u0101rtha.            <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pad\u0101rtha: – The etymological meaning of Pad\u0101rtha is \u092a\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0903, padasya artha\u1e25, translated as \u2018the meaning of a word,\u2019 or more appropriately, \u2018that which is indicated by the meaning of a word.\u2019 By implication, a pad\u0101rtha is any object which can be named. All things of experience, whether they are material or spiritual, if they are nameable, they are pad\u0101rtha. Ka\u1e47\u0101da has mentioned six pad\u0101rthas. Though he has accepted the concept of abh\u0101va or non-existance, he did not consider it as a pad\u0101rtha. But later on, abh\u0101va was also added to the list of pad\u0101rtha, taking it to be seven. Broadly, pad\u0101rthas can be divided into two- bh\u0101v\u0101tmak (existent) and abh\u0101v\u0101tmak (non-existent).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

 The bh\u0101v\u0101tmak pad\u0101rthas are six in number. They are dravya (substance), gu\u1e47a (quality), karma (activity), s\u0101m\u0101nya (genarality), vi\u015be\u1e63a (particularity) and samav\u0101ya (inherence).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The abh\u0101v\u0101tmak pad\u0101rthas are four- pr\u0101gabh\u0101va (prior non-existence), pradhva\u1e43s\u0101bh\u0101va (posterior non-existence), anyony\u0101bh\u0101va (mutual non-existence) and atyant\u0101bh\u0101va (absolute non-existence).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Asatk\u0101ryav\u0101da- the theory of evolution: – Contrary to the satk\u0101ryav\u0101da of S\u0101\u1e43khya, the Ny\u0101ya-Vai\u015be\u1e63ika School believes in asatk\u0101ryav\u0101da, which is also called as \u0101rambhav\u0101da or param\u0101\u1e47uk\u0101ra\u1e47av\u0101da (atomic causal theory). Unlike the S\u0101\u1e43khyas, they don’t accept the subtle presence of the effect in the cause. According to them, the effect is a new creation altogether. All the material substances are organic and destructible but they are made by the conjunction of atoms which are permanent and indestructible and destroyed by disjunction of atoms.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The atoms or param\u0101\u1e47u are the material substances which are inorganic, indivisible, permanent and unperceivable by sense organs. These param\u0101\u1e47us are four in number- earthy, watery, luminous and airy. These atoms are inactive in nature. The action in them is triggered by the \u012a\u015bvara. This is the basic difference between Greek atomic theory and Vai\u015be\u1e63ika atomic theory, which raises the latter to a level above. According to Greeks, the atoms are active by nature and they don’t require the power of Almighty for their conjunction. According to them, even soul is atomic. Thus, we can say that the Greek theory is materialistic while the Vai\u015be\u1e63ika theory is spiritual.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u012a\u015bvara: – Ka\u1e47\u0101da in his s\u016btras has not specifically mentioned the term ‘\u012a\u015bvara’. But it definitely says- the Vedas are pram\u0101\u1e47a because they are His words. \u0924\u0926\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0926\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0928\u093e\u092f\u0938\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0923\u094d\u092f\u092e\u094d,  <\/em> tadvacan\u0101d\u0101mn\u0101yasya pr\u0101m\u0101\u1e47yam13<\/sup>.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

 Here a question arises, his means whose? The God or the sages? As per Prahastap\u0101da and other commentators, it is the God. Thus, we can say that Vai\u015be\u1e63ika dar\u015bana is not an\u012b\u015bvarav\u0101di (non believer of God). \u012a\u015bvara is permanent, omniscient and absolute. He is the composer of Vedas. He is the instrumental cause of this world and the param\u0101\u1e47u are the material cause. According to Vai\u015be\u1e63ika, God has no role in providing fruits of the karma to an individual.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

 Mok\u1e63a: – According to Vai\u015be\u1e63ika, on acquiring tattva j\u00f1\u0101na (the true knowledge), the \u0101tm\u0101 can destroy its karma. That is, it stops acquiring fruits for the new karmas. But till it has to bear the fruits of past karma, it has to acquire a body. On the completion of that, the \u0101tm\u0101 once for all leaves the body, the organs and the mind and stays in its purest form, which is mok\u1e63a. Thus, mok\u1e63a is permanent and absolute relief from misery called as atyantika dukha niv\u1e5btti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

S\u0101\u1e43khya:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Etymology of the word S\u0101\u1e43khya is traced to two origins. Firstly, S\u0101\u1e43khya comes from Sa\u1e43khy\u0101 meaning number. In S\u0101\u1e43khya Dar\u015bana, the study of 25 tattvas (elements) is given prominence. As it lays emphasis on the number, it got the name S\u0101\u1e43khya. Secondly, the word S\u0101\u1e43khya is made by \u2018sam\u2019 prefixed to the root \u2018khy\u0101na\u2019 and \u2018Ana\u2019 suffix added, the meaning being, proper or true knowledge. The founder of this Dar\u015bana is Mahar\u1e63i Kapil.                                             <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Creation of S\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6di: – According to S\u0101\u1e43khya, s\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6di comes into existence by the confluence Prak\u1e5bti and Puru\u1e63a. Prak\u1e5bti is the primal nature which is incapable of creating the s\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6di on its own. When Prak\u1e5bti and Puru\u1e63a, the eternal conscience, come together then, mahat (intellect) comes into existence. From mahat, aha\u1e43k\u0101ra (ego), from aha\u1e43k\u0101ra the complete existence, i.e., ek\u0101da\u015ba indriyas (eleven organs) from sattva gu\u1e47a, and pa\u00f1ca tanm\u0101tr\u0101 (subtle elements) as well as pa\u00f1ca mah\u0101bh\u016bta (gross elements) from tamo gu\u1e47a. S\u0101\u1e43khya takes this theory of manifestation from Vedas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0905\u091c\u093e\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0932\u094b\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0936\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0903\u092a\u094d\u0930\u091c\u093e\u0903\u0938\u0943\u091c\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0903\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0905\u091c\u094b\u0939\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915\u094b\u091c\u0941\u0937\u092e\u093e\u0923\u094b\u093d\u0928\u0941\u0936\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0902 \u092d\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u092d\u094b\u0917\u093e\u092e\u091c\u094b\u093d\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0903\u0965Sweta.Upa.(4.9) , Taitt.Upa. (10.10)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

aj\u0101mek\u0101m\u0101\u1e43lohita\u015buklak\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e47\u0101\u1e43 bahv\u012b\u1e25 praj\u0101\u1e25 s\u1e5bjam\u0101n\u0101\u1e43 sar\u016bp\u0101\u1e25\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

ajohyekoju\u1e63am\u0101\u1e47o’nu\u015bete jah\u0101tyen\u0101\u1e43 bhuktabhog\u0101majo’nya\u1e25\u0965<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Puru\u1e63a: – Puru\u1e63a here is the eternal conscience, which longs for kaivalya. All the 24 tattvas are for him but he is not one of them. He is the enjoyer or experiencer of all the 24 tattvas including Prak\u1e5bti. He is devoid of the three gu\u1e47as-Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Puru\u1e63a is many in number as each individual is a Puru\u1e63a having a separate entity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The 25 tattvas: – The Primal Nature called as M\u016bla Prak\u1e5bti or Pradh\u0101na or Avyakt is only one. There are seven tattvas known as Prak\u1e5bti and Vik\u1e5bti. They are mahat, aha\u1e43k\u0101ra and pa\u00f1ca tanm\u0101tr\u0101.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

There are 16 Vik\u1e5bti also called Vik\u0101ra. They are ek\u0101da\u015ba indriya and pa\u00f1ca mah\u0101bh\u016bta. Puru\u1e63a is a tattva which is neither Prak\u1e5bti nor Vik\u1e5bti.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

These 25 tattvas are mentioned in S\u0101\u1e43khya k\u0101rik\u0101 –<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u092e\u0942\u0932\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0903\u092e\u0939\u0926\u093e\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924\u092f\u0903\u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u0937\u094b\u0921\u0915\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b \u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0903\u092a\u0941\u0930\u0941\u0937\u0903\u0965<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

m\u016blaprak\u1e5btirvik\u1e5bti\u1e25 mahad\u0101dy\u0101prak\u1e5btivik\u1e5btaya\u1e25 sapta\u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u1e63o\u1e0dakastuvik\u0101ro na prak\u1e5btirna vik\u1e5bti\u1e25 puru\u1e63a\u1e25\u096514<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Prak\u1e5bti: – The non-apprehension of the Primal Nature called Prak\u1e5bti is due to its minuteness and not due to its absence. The presence of Prak\u1e5bti can be confirmed as – for every effect there is a cause. Thus, there should be a cause of the mahat etc. seven elements which again produce the eleven organs and five gross elements. How can you say that Prak\u1e5bti only is the cause for it? It is because they are similar and dissimilar to the Prak\u1e5bti, just like a son to his father. Another theory in support of this is the \u2018Satk\u0101ryav\u0101da\u2019 propounded by S\u0101\u1e43khyas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Satk\u0101ryav\u0101da15<\/sup>:- To prove this, they propose five important facts visible in the nature.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1. There being no production of that which does not exist.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

2. There is an up\u0101d\u0101na k\u0101ra\u1e47a or material cause for every effect.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

3.Everything cannot be produced from everything or everywhere. It can be produced from its material cause only since it pre-exists in it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

4. A competent thing produces that which it is competent to produce.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

5. The effect is of the nature of the cause. On account of these five reasons, the mergent mahat and the rest, exists in the nature. Hence, it is proved that the existent is produced and not the non-existent.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kaivalya: – According to S\u0101\u1e43khya, Kaivalya or Salvation is nothing but certain and final relief from the three fold miseries known as \u0100dibhautika, \u0100dhy\u0101tmika and \u0100didaivika Dukha (external, internal and divine miseries). It can be attained through true knowledge. By knowing the difference between Prak\u1e5bti and Puru\u1e63a, one can get liberated from the bondages. Thus, this true knowledge itself is Salvation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yoga :<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yoga accepts all the 25 elements of S\u0101\u1e43khya and adds an additional element of God to it, thus taking the number of elements to 26. The S\u0101\u1e43khya Dar\u015bana propounded by Sage Kapila is called as Nir\u012b\u015bvara (doesn\u2019t believe in existence of God) S\u0101\u1e43khya whereas Yoga is Se\u015bvara S\u0101\u1e43khya. This itself is the prime difference between both the Dar\u015banas. Yoga Dar\u015bana accepts the entity of Almighty God.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The prevalent meaning of Yoga is to associate, thus Yoga means association of the soul with the Supreme Being. The word Yoga comes from the root \u2018Yuj\u2019 in sanskrit, which means sam\u0101dhi or meditation. So, etymological meaning of Yoga is sam\u0101dhi. Even Pata\u00f1jali directs towards this meaning saying \u201cYoga is the cessation of inner instincts.\u201d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927\u0903, yoga\u015bcittav\u1e5bttinirodha\u1e25 (Yoga S\u016btra- 1\/2)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cita means the inner conscience which includes mind intellect and ego.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Five Avasth\u0101\u2019s16<\/sup>: – <\/strong>There are 5 stages or avasth\u0101\u2019s of inner conscience, namely – K\u1e63ipta (fickle mind, influence of r\u0101jas gu\u1e47a),M\u016b\u1e0dha (mind devoid of the knowledge, influence of tamo gu\u1e47a),Vik\u1e63ipta (engaged in the means of happiness, influence of sattva gu\u1e47a), <\/strong>Ek\u0101gra or Sa\u1e43praj\u00f1\u0101ta Sam\u0101dhi (concentration on one particular object, increased influence of sattva gu\u1e47a), <\/strong>Niruddh or Asa\u1e43praj\u00f1\u0101ta Sam\u0101dhi (mind free from all instincts, sattva gu\u1e47a at its highest).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The last two stages are helpful in concentration i.e. sam\u0101dhi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Five V\u1e5bttis: –<\/strong> The cita has five v\u1e5bttis (mental modifications)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \n
  1. Pram\u0101\u1e47a = It accepts pratyak\u1e63a, a\u1e47um\u0101na and \u015babda as pram\u0101\u1e47a.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  2. Viparyaya = The false knowledge and misconception is called as viparyaya.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  3. Vikalpa = Vikalpa is when an object is nonexistent but perceivable through words. You can call it as Verbal Delusion or imagination E.g.: Horns of a Horse <\/li>\n\n\n\n
  4. Nidr\u0101 = Literally meaning sleep, it is a condition when mind is neither awake nor in dreams.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  5. Sm\u1e5bti = Recollection of the experience is called Sm\u1e5bti.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    According to Pata\u00f1jali, stopping of all the cita v\u1e5bttis means v\u1e5bttis along with their sa\u1e43sk\u0101ras.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Types of Sam\u0101dhi17<\/sup>:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    When you focus on one object by eliminating all other v\u1e5bttis other than the focus itself then it is called sa\u1e43praj\u00f1\u0101ta sam\u0101dhi .Whereas, a meditation when no object is required to focus is called as asa\u1e43praj\u00f1\u0101ta sam\u0101dhi. It is the purest form of meditation which leads to Kaivalya. It can only be achieved through continuous practice of sa\u1e43praj\u00f1\u0101ta sam\u0101dhi.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Means of Salvation: – Yoga puts forward eight fold path called A\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101\u1e45ga Yoga to attain Kaivalya. Practising these eight is called as A\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101\u1e45ga Yoga \u2013 Yama (self control), Niyama (manual), \u0100sana (sitting poster), Pr\u0101\u1e47\u0101y\u0101ma (control over breathe), Praty\u0101h\u0101ra (withdrawal of all the sense organs from their pleasures and focus on mind), Dh\u0101ra\u1e47\u0101 (Focusing one\u2019s mind on any one object), Dhy\u0101na (undeviated focus), Sam\u0101dhi (blissful and calm state of mind).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u012a\u015bvara: – God, according to Yoga, is eternal, omniscient, different from the souls and best among all. He is devoid of all the miseries and untouched by actions. He is free from all bondages. He is the ocean of knowledge and power. He is the foremost teacher and creator of Vedas. He is above all and nothing can be equal to him.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Kaivalya: – One obtains Salvation by mastering asa\u1e43praj\u00f1\u0101ta sam\u0101dhi. For this, one should cross the four stages of inner consciences and reach the fifth stage of Nirodha by curbing the five v\u1e5bttis and following the eight-fold path. Yoga, also gives an easy and remarkable way to attain the sam\u0101dhi, and that is \u012a\u015bvara-Pra\u1e47idh\u0101na. In simple language, \u012a\u015bvara-Pra\u1e47idh\u0101na is devotional concentration of mind into the God and affectionately surrendering all positive and negative fruits of our actions to Him. This is an easier way to attain sam\u0101dhi than the difficult path of rigorous practice and renunciation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Thus, Yoga gives a widespread view of all the important aspects of one\u2019s life, starting right from cleanliness till the ultimate sam\u0101dhi. On one hand it instructs to have full control over your sense organs and practice restrain while on other it proposes a blissful path of \u012a\u015bvara-Pra\u1e47idh\u0101na.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 means correct description of the form of an object. It is a M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 or enquiry into the principles, according to which the Vedic texts are to be interpreted. \u2018It ignores the mantras which are the first portion of Vedas and concentrates its analysis on the Brahmanas, which deal with rituals. As it suppresses the latter part known as Upani\u015bads as well, its name is P\u016brva M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101, the prior enquiry\u201918<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    P\u016brva M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 lays emphasis on duty and action, that is, dharma and karma. It deals with Karma k\u0101\u1e47\u1e0da (proceedings of yaj\u00f1a) part of Vedas. Jaimini, the codifier of M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 S\u016btras, states the objective of his s\u016btras as quenching the inquisitiveness about dharma \u0905\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094b \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091c\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0938\u093e, ath\u0101to dharmajij\u00f1\u0101s\u0101. 19<\/sup> The most important commentary, bh\u0101\u1e63ya, on Jaimini S\u016btras is that of \u015aabara Sv\u0101mi. This bh\u0101\u1e63ya was commuted upon in two different ways by two different scholars- Prabh\u0101kara and Kum\u0101rila Bha\u1e6d\u1e6da. Thus, we find that the M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 School had split into two main streams of thought commonly called by their proponent\u2019s names as the Prabh\u0101kara School or Guru Mata and Bha\u1e6d\u1e6da School of M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The main purpose of Vedic sacrificial religion was to attain heaven or svarga where man was to enjoy all the physical and mental pleasures.                                                                                  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

     \u092f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u0947\u0928 \u092f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u092e\u092f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u0924 \u0926\u0947\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093f \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938\u0928\u094d\u0964 \u0924\u0947\u0939\u0928\u093e\u0915\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0903 \u0938\u091a\u0928\u094d\u0924 \u092f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0903 \u0938\u0928\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0935\u093e\u0903\u0965     <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    yaj\u00f1ena yaj\u00f1amayajanta dev\u0101st\u0101ni dharm\u0101\u1e47i pratham\u0101ny\u0101san\u0964                                        <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    tehan\u0101ka\u1e43 mahim\u0101na\u1e25 sacanta yatra p\u016brve s\u0101dhy\u0101\u1e25 santi dev\u0101\u1e25 \u0965 20 <\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    All rituals involved in such sacrifices had this as their goal. But in M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101, this aim was replaced by the ideal of mok\u1e63a.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Pr\u0101m\u0101\u1e47ayav\u0101da or epistemology: – The definition of pram\u0101, valid knowledge, in M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 is very specific. Pram\u0101 is the flawless valid knowledge of an unknown and true substance, that should not be opposed by any other knowledge. The means of such knowledge is pram\u0101\u1e47a. There are six pram\u0101\u1e47as according to Bha\u1e6d\u1e6da Mata- pratyak\u1e63a (perception), a\u1e47um\u0101na (inference), upam\u0101na (comparison), \u015babda (word), arth\u0101patti (postulation), and a\u1e47upalabdhi (non-cognition). The Prabh\u0101kara mata accepts only five pram\u0101\u1e47as, it doesn’t accept a\u1e47upalabdhi. But Jaimini accepts pratyak\u1e63a, a\u1e47um\u0101na and \u015babda only as pram\u0101\u1e47as.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Tattva Sam\u012bk\u1e63\u0101 or metaphysics: – The M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 School is one of realism like Ny\u0101ya-Vai\u015be\u1e63ika School. Both believe in plurality of the real. They believe in the existence of permanent dravy\u0101s or substances which are the basic substrata of changing modes. The substance alone endured while its changing modes may take very many forms. Such substances are many.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Pad\u0101rth: – Of the two schools of M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101, the Bha\u1e6d\u1e6da School is close to the Ny\u0101ya -Vai\u015be\u1e63ika School as they also accept the nine substances accepted by the Ny\u0101ya-Vai\u015be\u1e63ika School namely, earth, water, air, fire, ether (\u0101k\u0101\u015ba), time, space (dik), self (\u0101tm\u0101) and mind (mana). They add to this list two more substances which are darkness (tamas) and sound (\u015babda).                            <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The Prabh\u0101karas accept eight categories of pad\u0101rth- dravya, gu\u1e47a, karma, s\u0101m\u0101nya (generality), samav\u0101ya (inherence), \u015bakti (force), s\u0101d\u1e5b\u015bya (similarity) and sa\u1e43khy\u0101 (number). \u015aakti or force is altogether a new perspective presented by m\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101kas. It says that, there is a potency or \u015bakti in the cause which is responsible for the production of the effect. M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 School is strong profounder of karma k\u0101\u1e47\u1e0da, the karma theory. Ap\u016brva is said to be that \u015aakti which, at an appropriate time, provides fruit for the good or bad actions done. It is the bridge between karma and karma phala. It is to be noted that as m\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101kas being nir\u012b\u015bvarav\u0101di don’t accept God’s indulgence in providing karma phala. This duty is discharged by the so-called Ap\u016brva.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u0100tm\u0101: – As already stated, the M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 School is realistic and believes in reality and plurality of souls. A self or \u0101tm\u0101, distinct from the body, the senses and the understanding is accepted as real.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u0100c\u0101r m\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 (Ethical evaluation):- According to M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101, the primary intention of the Vedas is to establish the procedure of yaj\u00f1a. Thus, dharma here means performing yaj\u00f1a and other duties as described in Vedas. Vedas describe three types of karmas or actions-<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1. K\u0101mya Karma- The actions that are done for a particular purpose or desire to be fulfilled.      <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2. Ni\u1e63iddha Karma- The actions that lead you to sin are ni\u1e63iddha karma. Hence these are the forbidden actions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    3. Nitya-Naimittika Karma- These karmas have to be performed without any desire or purpose, as a mandatory duty, either daily or occasionally as per the Vedic orders. Though these karmas do not yield any fruits, non performance of these, leads to sin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Mok\u1e63a: – According to M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101 -\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092a\u091e\u094d\u091a\u0938\u092e\u094d\u092c\u0928\u094d\u0927\u0935\u093f\u0932\u092f\u094b \u092e\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0903, prapa\u00f1casambandhavilayo mok\u1e63a\u1e25, the destruction of the relation between \u0101tm\u0101 and jagat or the world is called as mok\u1e63a. Mok\u1e63a is that condition of \u0101tm\u0101, where in there is no misery or happiness. One should avoid k\u0101mya and ni\u1e63iddha karma and dutifully perform nitya naimittika karma to attain mok\u1e63a. Though karma is primary means of mok\u1e63a, the \u0101tm\u0101j\u00f1\u0101na is its coefficient.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Ved\u0101nta:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The most important system of philosophy which is a living force today is Ved\u0101nta. It is also known as ‘Uttara M\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101’ which means latter enquiry. It is latter because the Upani\u015bads (also known as Ved\u0101nta) form the latter portions of the Vedas. Badrayana’s Ved\u0101nta S\u016btras or Brahma S\u016btras are the source for Ved\u0101nta. Some of the chief purposes which the Brahma S\u016btra tried to achieve were to refute the then-current theory that Upani\u015bads teach dualism as envisaged by the S\u0101\u1e43khya School, to refute the ritualism preached by the m\u012bm\u0101\u1e43s\u0101kas and to synchronize and bring out a non contradictory view of Upani\u015bads.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    These Brahma S\u016btras are so sententious that it is possible to interpret them in various ways. Hence, sprang up various schools of Ved\u0101nta putting forth their own interpretation of these s\u016btras. Though there are many commentaries on Brahma S\u016btra, there are five prominent schools.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    NAME OF THE \u0100C\u0100RYA<\/td>PERIOD<\/td>NAME OF COMMENTORY<\/td>SIDDH\u0100NTA<\/td><\/tr>
    \u015aa\u1e43kar\u0101c\u0101rya<\/td>788-820 A.D<\/td>\u015a\u0101r\u012brika Bh\u0101\u1e63ya<\/td>Kevala Advaita<\/td><\/tr>
    R\u0101m\u0101nuj\u0101c\u0101rya<\/td>1140 A.D<\/td>\u015ar\u012b Bh\u0101\u1e63ya<\/td>Vi\u015bi\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101dvaita<\/td><\/tr>
    Madhv\u0101c\u0101rya<\/td>1238 A.D<\/td>P\u016br\u1e47a Praj\u00f1a Bh\u0101\u1e63ya<\/td>Dvait<\/td><\/tr>
    Nimb\u0101rk\u0101c\u0101rya<\/td>1250 A.D<\/td>Ved\u0101nta P\u0101rij\u0101ta<\/td>Dvait\u0101dvaita<\/td><\/tr>
    Vallabh\u0101c\u0101rya<\/td>1479-1544 A.D<\/td>A\u1e47u Bh\u0101\u1e63ya<\/td>\u015auddh\u0101dvaita<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

    No other school of Indian philosophy has developed as many branches as Ved\u0101nta. It is thus, the most acclaimed school of Bh\u0101rat\u012bya  dar\u015bana.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u015aa\u1e43kar\u0101c\u0101rya’s Nirvi\u015be\u1e63a or Kevala Advaita: – The chief exponent of the monistic idealism known as Advaita, non dualism, is \u015aa\u1e43kar\u0101c\u0101rya. The essence of Kevala Advaita view is found in a traditional verse saying- ‘Brahma is the Truth, world is illusion and j\u012bva (individual soul) is Brahma only, not different from it.’ \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0939\u094d\u092e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902 \u091c\u0917\u0928\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u094b \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0939\u094d\u092e\u0948\u0935 \u0928\u093e\u092a\u0930\u0903, brahma satya\u1e43 jaganmithy\u0101 j\u012bvo brahmaiva n\u0101para\u1e25. 21<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Kevala Advaita does not recognize anything other than Brahma on the absolute level, but, on empirical level admits m\u0101y\u0101 or avidy\u0101 to explain the nature of the world and individual soul. The world is created by m\u0101y\u0101 but it has no existence apart from Brahma and hence is mithy\u0101 (illusory). There is absolute identity between j\u012bva and Brahma.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The well-known prasth\u0101natrayi, namely, the Upani\u015bada, Brahma S\u016btra and the Bhagav\u0101d G\u012bt\u0101 is the foundation of Ved\u0101nta thought. \u015aa\u1e43kar\u0101c\u0101rya explains the essence of the teaching of prasth\u0101natrayi by writing commentaries on it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The Highest Reality, Brahma is attributeless (nirgu\u1e47a), formless (nir\u0101k\u0101ra) and beyond comprehension. It is the only true reality, true knowledge (j\u00f1\u0101na swar\u016bpa) and everything else, including the world, which appears to exist is illusionary. On the other hand, Sagu\u1e47a Brahma under the influence of m\u0101y\u0101, called as \u012a\u015bvara, is manifested by the j\u012bva for the sake of worship. Mok\u1e63a is the experience of Brahma or the \u0100tm\u0101, the true knowledge of the self and freedom from bondage caused by avidy\u0101.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    R\u0101m\u0101nuj\u0101c\u0101rya\u2019s Vi\u015bi\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101dvaita: – R\u0101m\u0101nuja\u2019s celebrated system of philosophy known as Vi\u015bi\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101dvaita or qualified monism is non-dualism with a qualification or Vi\u015be\u1e63a. R\u0101m\u0101nuja contends that the prasth\u0101natrayi are to be interpreted in a way that shows its unity in diversity, for any other way would violate their consistency.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Sri R\u0101m\u0101nuja\u2019s Brahma or Lord N\u0101r\u0101ya\u1e47a subsists in a plurality of forms as souls (Cit) and matter (Acit), but He is One. Ved\u0101nta De\u015bika defines Vi\u015bi\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101dvaita using the statement, \u0905\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d \u0905\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0939\u094d\u092e\u0948\u0915\u092e\u0947\u0935 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092e\u094d- a\u015be\u1e63a cit acit prak\u0101ra\u1e43 brahmaikameva tattvam, Brahma, as qualified by the sentient and insentient modes (or attributes), is the only reality. Whatever is, is Brahma; but, Brahma is not of a homogeneous nature. He is a Personal God with attributes of omnipotence, omniscience and infinite love, the all-powerful and all-wise Ruler of a real world permeated and animated by His spirit. There is thus no room for the distinction between Param Nirgu\u1e47a and Aparam Sagu\u1e47a Brahma, between Brahma and \u012a\u015bvara. He, the Puru\u1e63ottama, is the Supreme Being, full of unlimited auspicious attributes. Thus He is Sagu\u1e47a. Nirgu\u1e47atva indicates that there is no base, or lower qualities such as sorrow, pain, mortality, change and old age in Him.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0939\u094d\u092e\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0928 \u091a \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0924\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0928\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0932\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u093d\u0928\u0935\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0936\u092f\u093e\u0938\u0919\u094d\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0947\u092f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0923\u0917\u0941\u0923\u0917\u0923\u0903 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0941\u0937\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u094b\u093d\u092d\u093f\u0927\u0940\u092f\u0924\u0947,<\/p>\n\n\n\n

     brahma\u015babdena ca svabh\u0101vato nirastanikhilado\u1e63o’navadhik\u0101ti\u015bay\u0101sa\u1e45khyeyakaly\u0101\u1e47agu\u1e47aga\u1e47a\u1e25 puru\u1e63ottamo’bhidh\u012byate.22<\/sup><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Matter and soul depend on Him. These are related to Him as the body is related to the soul. They have no existence apart from Him. They are termed Vi\u015be\u1e63anas, attributes. God is the Vi\u015be\u1e63ya or that which is qualified.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Mok\u1e63a is not a negative separation from transmigration, or a series of rebirths, but rather the joy of the contemplation of Brahma. This joy is attained by a life of exclusive devotion (bhakti) to God. In return, God will offer his grace, which will assist the devotee in attaining mok\u1e63a.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Madhv\u0101c\u0101rya\u2019s Dvaita: – Sri Madhv\u0101c\u0101rya advocated dualism and realism. He argued that Ved\u0101nta taught the fundamental difference between the individual self or \u0101tm\u0101 and the ultimate reality, Brahma. \u2018According to Madhva there are two orders of reality:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1. Svatantra, independent reality, which consists of Brahma alone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2. Paratantra, dependent reality, which consists of j\u012bvas (souls) and jada (lifeless objects).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Although dependent reality would not exist apart from Brahma\u2019s will\u201923<\/sup>, according to him, the world is real, the individual souls are different from Brahma, and Vi\u1e63\u1e47u is the highest entity in the Universe.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Brahma and Param\u0101tm\u0101 are same and they are none other than Vi\u1e63\u1e47u. Madhva\u2019s Brahma is also Sagu\u1e47a and S\u0101k\u0101ra, endowed with unlimited auspicious qualities and the One who enjoys His own bliss. God is the Supreme Person called \u012a\u015bvara. He is completely independent, perfect, absolute and pure consciousness.                                                                                                <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    God is the independent reality. Individual souls and the world are dependent realities. Brahma is only the instrumental cause of this universe, material cause being prak\u1e5bti. The world is Prak\u1e5bti and is not created by God (as inherent) and it has eternal existence.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Mukti, regaining one\u2019s blissful nature, can be got only through bhakti or devotion to God. For liberation, mere intellectual conceptualization of Brahma as creator is not enough, the individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and devotional surrender to Him, and only His grace leads to redemption and liberation, according to Madhva. The complete philosophy of Madhva can be summed up in one shloka-                                                                                      <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092e\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0927\u094d\u0935\u092e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0930\u093f\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0924\u092e\u0903 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902 \u091c\u0917\u0924\u094d \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u0924\u094b, \u092d\u0947\u0926\u094b \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0917\u0923\u093e \u0939\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0928\u0941\u091a\u0930\u093e \u0928\u0940\u091a\u094b\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0924\u093e\u0903 \u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

     \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0948\u091c\u0938\u0941\u0916\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092d\u0942\u0924\u093f\u0930\u092e\u0932\u093e \u092d\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u092e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924\u092f\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092e\u0916\u093f\u0932\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0928\u093e\u092f\u0948\u0915\u0935\u0947\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b \u0939\u0930\u093f\u0903\u0965<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u015br\u012bmanmadhvamate hari\u1e25 paratama\u1e25 satya\u1e43 jagat tattvato, bhedo j\u012bvaga\u1e47\u0101 hareranucar\u0101 n\u012bcoccabh\u0101va\u1e43 gat\u0101\u1e25 \u0964<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    muktirnaijasukh\u0101nibh\u016btiramal\u0101 bhakti\u015bca tats\u0101dhanamak\u1e63\u0101ditritaya\u1e43<\/p>\n\n\n\n

     pram\u0101\u1e47amakhil\u0101mn\u0101yaikavedyo hari\u1e25\u0965<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    It means- According to Madhva, Lord Hari is Supreme, the world is true, the souls are high and low, salvation is the divine bliss and can be obtained by pure devotion. The God can be known by the Vedas and the three Pram\u0101\u1e47as. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Nimb\u0101rk\u0101c\u0101rya\u2019s Dvait\u0101dvaita:-Nimb\u0101rka’s Bhed\u0101bheda<\/a> or Dvait\u0101davait philosophy is duality and non-duality at the same time, or dualistic non-dualism. According to Nimb\u0101rka, there are three categories of existence, namely \u012a\u015bvara<\/a> (God, Divine Being); cita (j\u012bva<\/a>, the individual soul); and acita (lifeless matter). Cita and acita are different from \u012a\u015bvara, in the sense that they have Gu\u1e47a (attributes) and Svabh\u0101va (capacitaies), which are different from those of \u012a\u015bvara. At the same time, cita and acita are not different from \u012a\u015bvara<\/a>, because they cannot exist independently of him. \u012a\u015bvara is independent and exists by himself, while cita and acita exist in dependence upon him. Difference means a kind of existence which is separate but dependent, (paratantra satt\u0101 bh\u0101va); while non-difference means impossibility of separate existence (svatantra satt\u0101 bh\u0101v).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The Brahma is Sagu\u1e47a and S\u0101k\u0101r. He is devoid of all prakrt do\u1e63as or blemishes and abode of all auspicious qualities. He is the material and the instrumental cause of the jagat. Nimb\u0101rka identifies the Supreme Brahma with Krishna who is endowed with all auspicious qualities and is free from ignorance, passion, attachment and egoism. The basic practice consists of the worship of Sri R\u0101dh\u0101 M\u0101dhava<\/a>, with Sri R\u0101dh\u0101 being personified as the inseparable part of Sri Krishna<\/a>. One cannot get the devotion or cannot get attracted towards the Lord without his grace. Thus, God\u2019s grace is of paramount importance for mok\u1e63a.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Vallabh\u0101c\u0101rya\u2019s \u015auddh\u0101dvaita: – Vallabh\u0101c\u0101rya is the founder of the \u015auddhadvaita School, that is, school of Pure Monism. He does not admit M\u0101y\u0101, like \u015aa\u1e43kara, and believes that the whole world of matter and souls is real and is a subtle form of Brahma. Brahma can create the world without being dependant on m\u0101y\u0101. Instead, m\u0101y\u0101 is dependent on Brahma as it is one of the \u015baktis of Brahma.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Brahma is the independent reality, and is personified as Krishna when he is endowed with the qualities of wisdom (j\u00f1\u0101na) and action (kriy\u0101). The essence of Brahma is Existence (sat), Knowledge (cita) and Bliss (\u0101nanda). Souls and matter are real manifestations of Brahma, they are his parts. Brahma is the abode of all good quality and even the seemingly contradictory qualities (\u0935\u093f\u0930\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092f, viruddha dharm\u0101\u015braya); He is the smallest and the greatest, the one and the many.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Mok\u1e63a, for Vallabha\u2019s followers, is not becoming one with the Brahma, but serving the God and enjoying his bliss while maintaining ones individuality. According to Vallabha, bhakti, a firm and all-surpassing affection (sneha) for God, with a full sense of His greatness, is the only means of salvation which can be achieved only through his grace.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Conclusion:<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    By studying the schools of Indian Philosophy we can conclude that, all the dar\u015banas, have attainment of mok\u1e63a as their prime objective and believe that mok\u1e63a is permanent relief from misery and sorrow. All the schools believe in some divine force which we may call it as Almighty. Some say it as only a conscience (Puru\u1e63a), some call it formless and some consider it as True Knowledge, for others it is a Divine Form possessing divine attributes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    But, in all these, the question arises as to which path is most suitable for salvation. If we give a thorough study, we can see that all other dar\u015banas have stressed upon the true knowledge or the right duty as the means of salvation. But Ved\u0101nta, specially the one propagated by the four vai\u1e63\u1e47ava \u0101c\u0101ryas, namely R\u0101m\u0101nuj\u0101c\u0101rya, Madhv\u0101c\u0101rya, Nimb\u0101rk\u0101c\u0101rya and Vallabh\u0101c\u0101rya, have claimed that as per San\u0101tana Dharma \u015b\u0101stras, a devotee can attain mok\u1e63a through devotion. In today\u2019s modern and fast moving period, this seems to be most practical solution not only of salvation but also for our worldly miseries and sorrows.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    References<\/u><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \n
    1. Dr.  Acharya Kala. Indian Philosophical Terms: Glossary and Source. Somaiya Publications<\/em>. ISBN: 81-7039-261-6. P.No. 79<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    2. Sri Gautam Muni praneet Nyay Sutrani, Anandashram, Sanskrit Granthavali<\/em>, P.No.5<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    3. Bhatt Rameshwar Pandit, Manu Smritih, Chaukhamha Sanskrit Pratishthan<\/em>, P.No.354.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    4. Vidya Bhushana Satish Chandra, Nyaya Darsana of Gotama, New Bharatiya Book Corporation<\/em>, P.No.3.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    5. Tarkapanchanana Pandita Jayanarayana (1865), The Nyaya Darshana, Bibliotheca Indica Series<\/em>, P.No.2.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    6. Jha Pandit Sri Rudradhar, Tarka bhasha, Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series<\/em>, P.No.7.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    7. Nyaya Sutra (1\/1\/4) of Gotama, The Panini Office, Bhuvaneshwari Ashrama<\/em>. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
    8. Iyer S.R, Tarka bhasha of Keshava Mishra, Chaukhambha Orientalia<\/em>, P.No.58.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    9. Nyaya Sutra (1\/1\/9) of Gotama, The Panini Office, Bhuvaneshwari Ashrama<\/em>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    10. Nyaya Sutra (1\/1\/22) of Gotama, The Panini Office, Bhuvaneshwari Ashrama<\/em>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    11. Nyaya Sutra (1\/1\/2) of Gotama, The Panini Office, Bhuvaneshwari Ashrama<\/em>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    12. Chenna Kesavan Sarasvati (1976). The concepts of Indian Philosophy. Orient Longman<\/em> P.No.63.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    13. Vaisheshika Sutra (1\/1\/3 & 10\/2\/9) of Kanada, The Panini Office, Bhuvaneshwari Ashrama<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
    14. Dr. Mainkar T.G., Samkhyakarika of Isvarakrsna, Choukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan<\/em>, P.No.44.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    15.  ibid, P.No. 62.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    16. Upadhyaya Acharya Baldev, Bharatiya Darshana, Chowkhamabha Orientalia<\/em>, P.No.294<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    17. Patanjali Yoga Sutras, commentary by Swami Vivekanada, P.No.22. (Source: https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/PatanjaliYogaSutraBySwamiVivekananda\/mode\/2up)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    18. Chenna Kesavan Sarasvati (1976). The concepts of Indian Philosophy. Orient Longman<\/em>, P.No.45.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    19. Mimamsa Sutra (1\/1\/1) of Jaimini, The Panini Office, Bhuvaneshwari Ashrama<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
    20. Yajurveda (31\/16), translated by Dr. Tulsiram.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    21. Brahmagyanavalimala, verse 20. Parmaartha Tattvam, Volume 7, Issue 1-2.<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
    22. Shri Bhashyam (1\/1\/1) by Jagadguru Sri Ramanujacharya, Sri Sarveshvara Press (Vrindavan)<\/em> P.No.1.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    23. Valerie Stoker, citation; www.iep.utm.edu\/madhva<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
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      Article Metrics Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy Anish ShahKeshav Memorial Institute of Commerce and Sciences, Hyderabad \u2013 500029 ABSTRACT The Indian Philosophy is regarded as the most mature philosophy in the world. Its approach towards the quest regarding creation, the Almighty and Salvation, makes it unique among others. All the six dar\u015banas namely, Ny\u0101ya, Vai\u015be\u1e63ika, […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-44","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/44","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=44"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/44\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":185,"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/44\/revisions\/185"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/language-studies.kmics.ac.in\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=44"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}